如果你有留意股市,你会发觉股价都会分成三个层次。
1. 比合理价低
2. 合理价
3. 比合理价高
而这三种股价又出现在三种股市的趋势里。
1. 熊市
2. 平稳
3. 牛市
所以买股,最重要就是要了解你买的公司的性质,不然你就会有一种捉龟跑鄨的感觉。
可能你会问什么是合理价?合理价有可以分成三种看法
1. 实质分析
根据市场先生的说法,就是把整间公司清盘了,就是它的合理价。合理价再减30%的折扣,防止意想不到的损失或亏损,这个价位就可以买入了。
2. 赚益分析
这种说法就是如果公司每年的赚益有超过其他的投资,这个价位就可以买入。比方,你用一元买,一年它赚一角,那么它的赚益就是10%,本益比就是10。如果,你在市场上,比方做生意还是买卖房产都无法赚取这样的赚益,那么这个投资就是适合你了。
3. 股息分析
这种说法就是不看公司的赚益,单看股息的发派。如果你用一元买,每年公司发放5分的股息。那么你的回酬就是5%。如果你找不到银行利息或其他的投资让你享有5%的回酬,那么这个投资就是适合你了。
当你了解了合理价,你就要考虑到时机了,因为你要把你的盈利放到最大。所以,你就要在三种趋势里分类出公司的性质。或许我简单的说说,让你明白一下。
1. 高股息优质股。
熊市>比合理价高一点或低一点
平稳>比合理价高一点
牛市》比合理价高一点
2. 成长性优质股
熊市>比合理价低一点
平稳>比合理价高
牛市》比合理价高很多
3。 投机性股
熊市>比合理价低很多
平稳>合理价或高或低,看个股
牛市》比合理价高很多
4. 垃圾股
没有合理价,纯粹赌运。
Showing posts with label 股市. Show all posts
Showing posts with label 股市. Show all posts
Wednesday, September 28, 2016
Thursday, March 20, 2014
Gordon模型的局限和股票估值
绝对价值(内在价值)
以前多数人在寻找股票的绝对价值,什么是公司的内在价值?有一个广泛接受的“红利贴现估值模型”,估值V0=D1贴现+D2贴现+...+(Dn贴现+Pn贴现)。Dn--指第n年的红利;Pn--指第n年卖出股票的价格,假设企业能永续运营,而股票一直不卖,则Pn代表第n年以后的所有红利贴现。所以,如果n足够大,则估值V0=所有预期红利的贴现值。这个公式几乎没有实战的意义,但它对公司内在价值的理解作了一个相当明确并广泛被接受的说明。这个公式是否忽略了资本利得(即留存利润再投资的收益)呢?由于Pn包含了资本利得,故并没有忽略资本利得。
一、Gorden模型
亦称固定增长的红利贴现模型,因Gorden普及了这个模型而被命名。假设持股一年,并假设红利每年以固定的增长率g增长,则公式一可以简化为
- 公式一:V0=D1/(K-g)
注:V0--现在的估值;D1--注意是一年后的预期红利,而不是本年度已实现的收益;K--“必要收益率”亦称“市场资本化率”:根据风险高低和利率而调整的合理收益率,由于资本预期收益率在均衡时应该等于K,故又可以叫预期收益率。g--红利以固定的增长率g增长。
假设公司有更好收益率的投资机会,留存部分收益,而不是全部以红利派发。公式二就转化如下:
- 公式二:V0=E1*(1-b)/(K-b*ROE)
E1指一年后预期的净收益,ROE是新投资的股权收益率,b是再投资率(即再投资资金占盈利的百分比),则g=再投资收益/账面价值=(再投资收益/整个收益)*(整个收益/账面价值)=b*ROE。如果全部分红,即b=0,则D1=E1,否则D1=E1*(1-b)。
意义:当ROE>K时,b越大,则V0迅速增大,即投资于回报率大于社会预期收益率的项目,会使股价大增;而一个低资产收益率的公司,要扩大投资在原项目,而不是高收益的新项目时,则有弊无利,全部分红更好,如中国铁建。
缺点:公式一、二的前提是公司永续经营,且红利稳定或稳定增长,很难找。
二、估值的底线
- 清算价值(本-格林汉姆的方法)
- 期次的底线是重置成本,约等于净资产。
相对价值
目前,证券分析更注重被估值公司的相对价值,即与同行业其它公司或本行业均值的比较。一个重要的概念是:绝大多数情形下估值是不精确的,所谓“黄金有价玉无价”。
- 估值模型有很多假设条件,并简化环境。
- 估值的不精确并不影响估值的重要性,估值的重要性通过同类股票的比较来得出买卖的决策。
- 估值明显受大众心理和经济周期的影响,除非你也象巴菲特一样,持股十年。
- 不同类型的公司估值方法并不一样,没有通用的模型,有些股票根本算不到合适的模型,如有发展潜力的、目前尚亏损的网络公司,人们只能用点击率和业务收入的比较来判断公司的优劣。从此角度而言主,你可以有你自己的独创办法。
一、彼得-林奇:市盈率估值模型
华尔街的实战经验:增长率应大致与市盈率相等。
学院派教科书认为这些经验“可能与红利帖现模型的一些形式是一致的,尽管常有有差异”。由于PE=P0/E1=V0/E1=(1-b)/(k-b*ROE),他们更强调以下结论:1,市盈率是一个很好的预测增长的指标,再投资率越高,增长率就越高,但市盈率并不一定高。当ROE<k时就是这种情形。但ROE>k时,PE会陡然增高。2,公司的风险越高,必要收益率也越高,即或k值越大。因此市盈率越小。当然这是不考虑增长率的变化时。请注意:市盈率是用下一年预期收益计算出来的(这与我们平时的习惯不同)。
我认为这是一个快速评估方法,结果多是上限(也许因为目前处在熊市)。适用于三五年内快速增长且平稳的公司,特别适用于增长加速的公司。
二、基于同类型的公司之间的比较的其它估值模型
- 市值/帐面价值比率
- 市值/现金流比率
- 市值/销售额比率
“银行贷款”模型
Gordon模型假设企业的经营是永续的,实际情况并非如此,估值取决于你对公司的发展能预期多长时间,一年?五年或十年?不同的时间点,估值结果是不同的。如果企业没有特别垄断优势,上市前三年业绩非常好,处于盈市高峰期,在上市时如何评估呢?
受巴菲特“不固定利息的股权债券”思想启发,本人设计了此模型。原理:投资者类似于银行,放贷给公司A元(或估值,公司用股票抵押A元)。通过预测每年的增长率来计算净利润总额B,而B应等于利息总额,通过利息总额贴现贷款额A,即估值。此过程复杂,可通过EXCELL表格来完成。到期收回本息,即A+B。此模型主要针对近期增长很快,但持续时间不长,且增长率变化较大的公司。
例子:海普瑞如果持股2-3年,且净利增长第1到第3年分别为50%,30%,10%,用此模型估值,约121--186元/股,我认为与股价市场表现相当地匹配。
估值是一个范围,而不是一个精确的价位。如果一个人认为某企业明年增长50%,后年增长30%,大后年这个行业不确定非常大,只愿意持股二年;而另一个人虽同意明后年的预期,但他比较肯定,此企业在第三年还能增长15%,他买入股票后准备持股三年,两人的估值是不一样的:后者愿意出更高的价。如果公司符合永续稳定,则估值可用5年期的贴现值替代;如果一个可预期增长期为3年的公司,其估值范围在2-3年贴现值之间;如果一个公司目前非常赚钱,但市场不确定很大,则估值范围在1-2年贴现值之间,巴菲特说“头一年不赚钱没有关系,只要以后每年能够有20%的股东权益报酬率……” 实际上,没有哪个人能预测五年后的事,所以银行的长期贷款最长时间是五年,巴菲特能持股十年,他不仅仅是要五年才重新评估一次,而是年年要跟踪。
意义:
- 此模型的结果是比较保守的,A-因为公司除了支付利息,自己还要有利润才行;B-贴现时间越短,估值越保守,因为五年的长期贷款利率目前不及6%,但因复利原因,第二年起就超过了10%。
- 模型适应性强,不必是稳定增长的红利,也不必是稳定增长的净利润。
- 误差主要来源于对未来数年的增长率的预期的准确性和持股时间。
- 找出持续竞争力的公司,预测时间越长,你的发现就可能越大。
- 缺陷:原理上不适合短线评估。
戈登股利增长模型(Gordon Dividend Growth Month)
什么叫戈登股利增长模型?
戈登股利增长模型又称为“股利贴息不变增长模型”、“戈登模型(Gordon Model)”,在大多数理财学和投资学方面的教材中,戈登模型是一个被广泛接受和运用的股票估价模型,该模型通过计算公司预期未来支付给股东的股利现值,来确定股票的内在价值,它相当于未来股利的永续流入。戈登股利增长模型是股息贴现模型的第二种特殊形式,分两种情况:一是不变的增长率;另一个是不变的增长值。
不变增长模型有三个假定条件:
1、股息的支付在时间上是永久性的。
2、股息的增长速度是一个常数。
在戈登模型中,需要预测的是下一期股利及其年增长率,而不是预计每一期的股利,以下就是固定股利增长率政策下未来股利的流入量表:
将所有现金流折现到0点
……,无限项
应用等比数列的求和公式,上式可以简化为:
由于这个公式十分简单,因此人们很容易忘记这是一个无限项的运算。
根据这个模型,公司的股利政策会对股票价值产生影响。这个模型十分有用,原因之一就是它使投资者可以确定一个不受当前股市状况影响的公司的绝对价值或“内在价值”。其次,戈登模型对未来的股利(而不是盈余)进行计量,关注投资者预期可以获得的实际现金流量,有助于不同行业的企业之间进行比较。尽管这个模型的概念十分简单,但是除了一些机构投资者以外,应用范围并不广泛,因为如果缺乏必要的数据和分析工具,它用起来就非常麻烦。
股利增长模型被麦伦·戈登教授得以推广,因此被称为“戈登模型”,这个模型几乎在每一本投资学教材中都会出现。纽约大学教授Aswath Damodaran在他所著的《投资估价》一书中写道:“从长期来看,用戈登模型低估(高估)的股票胜过(不如)风险调整的市场指数。”尽管任何一种投资模型都不可能永远适用于所有股票,但戈登模型仍被证明是一种可靠的方法,用以选择那些在长期从总体上看走势较好的股票。它应该是投资者用来在其投资组合中选择其中一些股票时运用的有效工具之一。
戈登模型(Golden Model)揭示了股票价格、预期基期股息、贴现率和股息固定增长率之间的关系,用公式表示为:
P=D/(i-g)
其中:P为股票价格;D为预期基期每股股息;i为贴现率;g为股息年增长率。
由于股票市场的投资风险一般大于货币市场,投资于股票市场的资金势必要求得到一定的风险报酬,使股票市场收益率高于货币市场,形成一种收益与风险相对应的较为稳定的比价结构,所以戈登模型中的贴现率i应包括两部分,其一是货币市场利率r,其二是股票的风险报酬率i′,即i=r+i′,故戈登模型可进一步改写为如下公式:
P=D/(r+i′-g)
这一模型说明股票价格P与货币市场利率r成反向关系,r越高,股价P越低,反之亦然,这一关系被现今各国实践所证实。
戈登股利增长模型的公式详解:
贴现现金流模型的公式如下:
式中:
V——股票的内在价值;
Dt——在未来时期以现金形式表示的每股股利;
如果我们假设股利永远按不变的增长率增长,那么就会建立不变增长模型。T时点的股利为:
Dt = Dt − 1(1 + g)
= D0(1 + g)t (2)
用Dt = D0(1 + g)t置换公式(1)中的分子Dt,得出:
运用数学中无穷级数的性质,如果k>g,可知:
把公式(4)代入公式(3)中,得出不变增长模型的价值公式:
假如去年某公司支付每股股利为1.80元,预计在未来日子里该公司股票的股利按每年5%的速率增长。因此,预期下一年股利等于1.80×(1+0.05)=1.89(元)。假定必要收益率是11%,根据公式(5)可知,该公司的股票等于1.80×(1+0.05)/(0.11-0.05)=1.89/(0.11-0.05)=31.50(元)。而当今每股股票价格是40元,因此股票被高估8.50元,建议当前持有该股票的投资者出售其股票。
方程(5)可用于解出不变增长证券的内部收益率。首先,用股票的当今价格代替V,其次,用k * 代替k,其结果是:
经过变换,可得:
用上述公式来计算上例公司股票的内部收益率,得出:
由于该公司股票的内在收益率小于其必要收益率,显示出该公司股票价格被高估。
不变增长模型与零增长模型的关系
零增长模型实际上是不变增长模型的一个特例。假定增长率g等于0,股利将永远按固定数量支付,这时,不变增长模型就是零增长模型。
从这两种模型来看,虽然不变增长的假设比零增长的假设有较小的应用限制,但是在许多情况下仍然被认为是不现实的。由于不变增长模型是多元增长模型的基础,因此这种模型极为重要
Reference : http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_5f5f9a890100d69g.html
Tuesday, October 29, 2013
Fundamental Analysis Concepts & REIT
[Investor Basics] Fundamental Analysis Concepts & REIT
Following two previous posts on Investor Basics – Concepts & Style and Technical Analysis Concepts, this article would look at one of the best yielding groups of stocks in the stock market – REIT, as well as some of the other terms related to Fundamental Analysis Concepts.
Real Estate Investment Trust
Real Estate Investment Trusts (REIT for short) are securities of companies that manage properties in their portfolio and distribute the profits from these properties, revenue from the rents and leases, to their unitholders.
Proper terms for REIT are slightly different from a normal stock counter.
In REIT, a stockholder is known as a unitholder, a share is known as a unit, dividends are called distributions.
As REITs are unique, profits that come from their rents or leases are to be distributed at 90%! Yes, 90% of the profits MUST be distributable. Note that this is only so for REIT!
As REIT gives constant and stable (for most of them anyway) distributions, many passive investors like REIT for their simplicity and consistency. Active Investors like REIT for their stock appreciation during key periods like during distribution periods or when there are announcement on new property acquisitions.
Personal advice for speculators in REIT is to stay away. The reasons being are while REIT many appreciate, the primary idea is to look at the distribution yield. This alone already puts an invisible resistance on the REIT counter. Another reason is that since the REIT distributes most of their profits, their cash flow is limited. So while REIT does appreciate, they will usually do so gradually and slowly, something that short-term traders must take note of.
The primary concept when one wants to own units of REIT (usually for a mid to long term), should be for the constant distribution and the distribution yield. However, there are other important figures to look out for in REITs. These figures while subjective to the eye of the beholder, gives certain insight on things that are not seen by the naked eye.
Distributions
Distributions give a constant stream of money back from your investments. While similar todividends, companies that give dividends usually have no obligation or fixed policy to do so but distributions are necessity for Trust securities.
Distributions of REITs are usually given semi-annually or quarterly. There is a list of REITs and the frequency of their distributions at the end of this article.
Distribution Yield
Distribution yield, similar to dividend yield already covered in my earlier article, is calculated by taking the total annual DPU (distribution per unit) divided by the price of the stock at the point in time the yield is to be calculated, multiply by 100%.
Example: $0.10 (total annual DPU) / $1.30 (price of stock when calculating yield) x 100% = 7.69%
What this means is that, based on the price of $1.30, the REIT returns 7.69% annually.
You can use this figure as a guide if you want to invest into this REIT. Assuming that the current stock price is now at $1.50 instead of $1.30 and assuming that the total annual distribution stays the same at $0.10, the current distribution yield is no longer 7.69% but 6.66%. Its yield has dropped by 1% and the rule of thumb is that the yield will keep dropping as the REIT stock price increases and if its annual DPU stays the same or dips.
Meaningful: Distribution yield will tell you the percentage of returns you can expect annually from the amount you intend to invest or had invested.
Passive investors should use distribution yield to calculate the optimal price they want to invest into an REIT based on the returns they want to see. Annual DPU & distribution yield are always indicated in all REITs' financial year end reports.
Net Asset Value Per Unit (NAVPU) / Net Asset Value Per Share (NAVPS)
Net Asset Value Per Unit (NAVPU) or Net Asset Value Per Share (NAVPS) if referring to a non-REIT stock, is the current value of the security per unit listed in the market. How this is calculated is by taking all of the current assets of the REIT, minus away its liabilities, divided by its units outstanding in the stock market.
To put this in layman’s term, if an REIT has to sell all its properties, cash out on all of its investments and liquidate whatever other assets it has and after paying off all its liabilities, divide the outstanding money to its unitholders, this is the value of each unit. A higher NAVPU tend to usually mean a greater "value" of the REIT.
Meaningful: NAV per unit or share will tell you how much value the unit or stock is worth in the current market.
Passive investors can use NAVPU/NAVPS to determine if a unit/stock counter is overpriced or undervalued. It is indicated on the financial report under “Net Asset Value per Unit”.
Gearing Ratio (Debt-to-Asset Ratio / Debt Ratio)
As all REITs require heavy financing for their acquisitions and operations, the gearing ratio calculated is Debt-to-Asset ratio (or commonly known as Debt ratio), where the total debts is divided by the total assets multiplied by 100%.
All REITs can have a maximum of 60% of gearing only after having their credit rating given by Fitch, Moody’s, or Standard & Poor’s. Otherwise, they can only have a maximum of 35%.
Meaningful: Debt-to-Asset Ratio will tell you how much financial leverage the REIT or company has and is currently using.
Passive investors can use Debt-to-Asset ratio to determine if the company is having too much debts or borrowing heavily (especially if the ratio is greater than 100%). Different industry and sectors have different borrowing range. Use this to compare companies within the same sector to determine which have stronger positive cash flow. Gearing ratios are usually indicated in the presentation slides or press releases.
Real Estate Investment Trust
Real Estate Investment Trusts (REIT for short) are securities of companies that manage properties in their portfolio and distribute the profits from these properties, revenue from the rents and leases, to their unitholders.
Proper terms for REIT are slightly different from a normal stock counter.
In REIT, a stockholder is known as a unitholder, a share is known as a unit, dividends are called distributions.
As REITs are unique, profits that come from their rents or leases are to be distributed at 90%! Yes, 90% of the profits MUST be distributable. Note that this is only so for REIT!
As REIT gives constant and stable (for most of them anyway) distributions, many passive investors like REIT for their simplicity and consistency. Active Investors like REIT for their stock appreciation during key periods like during distribution periods or when there are announcement on new property acquisitions.
Personal advice for speculators in REIT is to stay away. The reasons being are while REIT many appreciate, the primary idea is to look at the distribution yield. This alone already puts an invisible resistance on the REIT counter. Another reason is that since the REIT distributes most of their profits, their cash flow is limited. So while REIT does appreciate, they will usually do so gradually and slowly, something that short-term traders must take note of.
The primary concept when one wants to own units of REIT (usually for a mid to long term), should be for the constant distribution and the distribution yield. However, there are other important figures to look out for in REITs. These figures while subjective to the eye of the beholder, gives certain insight on things that are not seen by the naked eye.
Distributions
Distributions give a constant stream of money back from your investments. While similar todividends, companies that give dividends usually have no obligation or fixed policy to do so but distributions are necessity for Trust securities.
Distributions of REITs are usually given semi-annually or quarterly. There is a list of REITs and the frequency of their distributions at the end of this article.
Distribution Yield
Distribution yield, similar to dividend yield already covered in my earlier article, is calculated by taking the total annual DPU (distribution per unit) divided by the price of the stock at the point in time the yield is to be calculated, multiply by 100%.
Example: $0.10 (total annual DPU) / $1.30 (price of stock when calculating yield) x 100% = 7.69%
What this means is that, based on the price of $1.30, the REIT returns 7.69% annually.
You can use this figure as a guide if you want to invest into this REIT. Assuming that the current stock price is now at $1.50 instead of $1.30 and assuming that the total annual distribution stays the same at $0.10, the current distribution yield is no longer 7.69% but 6.66%. Its yield has dropped by 1% and the rule of thumb is that the yield will keep dropping as the REIT stock price increases and if its annual DPU stays the same or dips.
Meaningful: Distribution yield will tell you the percentage of returns you can expect annually from the amount you intend to invest or had invested.
Passive investors should use distribution yield to calculate the optimal price they want to invest into an REIT based on the returns they want to see. Annual DPU & distribution yield are always indicated in all REITs' financial year end reports.
Net Asset Value Per Unit (NAVPU) / Net Asset Value Per Share (NAVPS)
Net Asset Value Per Unit (NAVPU) or Net Asset Value Per Share (NAVPS) if referring to a non-REIT stock, is the current value of the security per unit listed in the market. How this is calculated is by taking all of the current assets of the REIT, minus away its liabilities, divided by its units outstanding in the stock market.
To put this in layman’s term, if an REIT has to sell all its properties, cash out on all of its investments and liquidate whatever other assets it has and after paying off all its liabilities, divide the outstanding money to its unitholders, this is the value of each unit. A higher NAVPU tend to usually mean a greater "value" of the REIT.
Meaningful: NAV per unit or share will tell you how much value the unit or stock is worth in the current market.
Passive investors can use NAVPU/NAVPS to determine if a unit/stock counter is overpriced or undervalued. It is indicated on the financial report under “Net Asset Value per Unit”.
Gearing Ratio (Debt-to-Asset Ratio / Debt Ratio)
As all REITs require heavy financing for their acquisitions and operations, the gearing ratio calculated is Debt-to-Asset ratio (or commonly known as Debt ratio), where the total debts is divided by the total assets multiplied by 100%.
All REITs can have a maximum of 60% of gearing only after having their credit rating given by Fitch, Moody’s, or Standard & Poor’s. Otherwise, they can only have a maximum of 35%.
Meaningful: Debt-to-Asset Ratio will tell you how much financial leverage the REIT or company has and is currently using.
Passive investors can use Debt-to-Asset ratio to determine if the company is having too much debts or borrowing heavily (especially if the ratio is greater than 100%). Different industry and sectors have different borrowing range. Use this to compare companies within the same sector to determine which have stronger positive cash flow. Gearing ratios are usually indicated in the presentation slides or press releases.
Tuesday, October 15, 2013
投資選股5要訣
我想投資股,請問首先如何選擇股項?
答:股市前輩指出,在投資前,最好要掌握有關股項的5大事項,即要注意股東基金回酬率(ROE)、營運現金流(OCF)、自由現金流(FCF)、本益比(P/E)、周息率(DY)及淨有形資產(NTA)等,主要可反映有關投資項目或上市公司的營運情況及其價值,以便達到低買高賣的效果。
●第一項的股東基金回酬率,也稱為股本回酬率。這是淨利與平均股東基金的百分比,主要是反映股東權益的收益水平,數目是越高超越好。這是判斷一家上市公司的獲利能力的重要指標之一,也是衡量公司內部財務,行銷及經營績效,以及未來成長潛在的指標。
計算公式:盈利/股東基金
●第二項的營運現金流,就是指投資項目投入使用後,在其周期內由於生產經營所帶來的現金流入和流出的數量。包括年度營業淨利和年折舊等。營運現金流一般按年度計算,而現金流入一般指營業現金收入,而現金流出是指營業現金支出和交納的稅金。
如果一個投資項目每年銷售收入,等於營業現金收入,付現成本等於營業現金支出。
●第三項的自由現金流(FCF),是從營運來的現金流量,減除為維持現有營運所需資本支出和稅金後餘額。
自由現金流可成為業務成長擴充,也可以作為發放股東股利,清償負債或是預留下來備度過景氣蕭條期。總之,自由現金流量是公司在不影響營運下,可以自由使用的現金餘額,也是衡量公司財務彈性的指標。
自由現金流量=營運現金流量-資本支出-利息-稅金
●第四項的本益比,是每股市價與每股盈利的比率。
計算方式:本益比=股票市價/每股淨利(通常是年度淨利)
例如該公司年度每股淨利是20仙,而市價是2令吉的話,本益比則是2令吉除以20仙,等於10倍水平。數目是越低越好,或反映入場市價低。
●第五項的周息率,則是指股票過去1年的派息總和與股價的比率。這是個浮動數字,會隨著每日股價起落,以及派息增減而有所變動。
計算公式為;周息率=派息總和/股價 X 100%。
例如年度派發的每股淨股息為10仙,而市價是1令吉,而周息率為10仙除以1令吉再x100%,就等於10%,這個數據是越高就越好,顯示派發高股息,又或是市價相應地走低。
每股淨有形資產,就是公司所擁有的資產數目,數據是越高越好。上述一點資料供參考。(星洲日報/投資致富‧投資問診‧文:李文龍)
Friday, October 11, 2013
master lease
A lease between the owner of property and its direct tenant, with all other leases subject to the first one.A tenant may sublease or assign part or all of its space on its own terms and conditions, but the parties will always be bound by the master lease because they are subordinate to it.
Wednesday, October 9, 2013
Gearing Ratio
Gearing Ratio
Gearing ratio
Gearing focuses on the capital structure of the business – that means the proportion of finance that is provided by debt relative to the finance provided by equity (or shareholders).The gearing ratio is also concerned with liquidity. However, it focuses on the long-term financial stability of a business.
Gearing (otherwise known as "leverage") measures the proportion of assets invested in a business that are financed by long-term borrowing.
In theory, the higher the level of borrowing (gearing) the higher are the risks to a business, since the payment of interest and repayment of debts are not "optional" in the same way as dividends. However, gearing can be a financially sound part of a business's capital structure particularly if the business has strong, predictable cash flows.
The formula for calculating gearing is:
Long-term liabilities include loans due more than one year + preference shares + mortgages
Capital employed = Share capital + retained earnings + long-term liabilities
The gearing calculation can be calculated like this:
2012
£’000 |
2011
£’000 | |
| Long-term liabilities |
1,200
|
1,450
|
| Capital employed |
5,655
|
4,675
|
| Gearing ratio |
21.2%
|
31.0%
|
According to the data the gearing ratio at 31 December 2012 was 21.2%, a reduction from 31.0% a year earlier. This was largely because the business reduced long-term borrowings by £200,000 and added over £1million to retained earnings.
How can the gearing ratio be evaluated?
- A business with a gearing ratio of more than 50% is traditionally said to be “highly geared”.
- A business with gearing of less than 25% is traditionally described as having “low gearing”
- Something between 25% - 50% would be considered normal for a well-established business which is happy to finance its activities using debt.
It is important to remember that financing a business through long-term debt is not necessarily a bad thing! Long-term debt is normally cheap, and it reduces the amount that shareholders have to invest in the business.
What is a sensible level of gearing? Much depends on the ability of the business to grow profits and generate positive cash flow to service the debt. A mature business which produces strong and reliable cash flows can handle a much higher level of gearing than a business where the cash flows are unpredictable and uncertain.
Another important point to remember is that the long-term capital structure of the business is very much in the control of the shareholders and management. Steps can be taken to change or manage the level of gearing – for example:
| Reduce Gearing | Increase Gearing |
| Focus on profit improvement (e.g. cost minimisation | Focus on growth – invest in revenue growth rather than profit |
| Repay long-term loans | Convert short-term debt into long-term loans |
| Retain profits rather than pay dividends | Buy-back ordinary shares |
| Issue more shares | Pay increased dividends out of retained earnings |
| Convert loans into equity | Issue preference shares or debentures |
Tuesday, December 18, 2012
KD 随机指标
当价格上涨时,收市价倾向于接近当日价格区间的上端;相反,在下降趋势中收市价趋向于接近当日价格区间的下端。随机指标在设计中充分考虑价格波动的随机震幅与中短期波动的测算,使其短期测市功能比移动平均线更加准确有效,在市场短期超买超卖的预测方面又比强弱指标敏感,因此,这一指标被投资者广泛采用。
计算方法
计算随机指标数值时,首先须找出最近N天内曾出现过的最高价、最低价与第N天的收盘价,然后利用这三个数字来计算第N天的未成熟随机值(RSV)。
计算随机指标数值时,首先须找出最近N天内曾出现过的最高价、最低价与第N天的收盘价,然后利用这三个数字来计算第N天的未成熟随机值(RSV)。
N:待设定参数,缺省值9日
然后,求RSV的M1日移动平均,得K值;再求K值的M2日移动平均得D值。M1、M2的缺省值都为3。
缺省时,系统在副图上绘制两条线,分别为RSV值的三日平均线K,K值的三日平均线D。
K与D值永远介于0与100之间。
KD线中的RSV,随着9日中高低价、收盘价的变动而有所不同。如果行情是一个明显的涨势,会带动线K(快速平均值)与线D(慢速平均值)向上升。但如涨势开始迟缓,便会慢慢反应到K值与D值,使线K跌破线D,此时中短期跌势确立。由于KD线本质上是一个随机波动的观念,对于掌握中短期的行情走势非常正确。
然后,求RSV的M1日移动平均,得K值;再求K值的M2日移动平均得D值。M1、M2的缺省值都为3。
缺省时,系统在副图上绘制两条线,分别为RSV值的三日平均线K,K值的三日平均线D。
K与D值永远介于0与100之间。
KD线中的RSV,随着9日中高低价、收盘价的变动而有所不同。如果行情是一个明显的涨势,会带动线K(快速平均值)与线D(慢速平均值)向上升。但如涨势开始迟缓,便会慢慢反应到K值与D值,使线K跌破线D,此时中短期跌势确立。由于KD线本质上是一个随机波动的观念,对于掌握中短期的行情走势非常正确。
应用法则
1、D值在70以上时,市场呈现超买现象。D值在30以下时,市场则呈现超卖现象。
2、当随机指数与股价出现背离时,一般为转势的信号。中期或短期的走势有可能已见顶或见底。
3、当K值大于D值,显示目前趋势是向上涨,因此线K向上突破线D时,为买进信号。当D值大于K值,显示趋势是向下跌,因此线K向下跌破线D,为卖出信号。
4、线K与线D的交叉,须在70以上,30以下信号才较为正确。K线与D线在特性上与强弱指标一样,当K值与D值在70以上,已显示超买的现象,30以下出现超卖的现象。KD线不仅能反映市场的超买超卖程度,还能通过交叉突破发出买卖信号。但若这类交叉突破在50左右发生,走势又陷入盘局时,买卖信号可视为无效。
5、当K值和D值上升或下跌的速度减弱,倾斜度趋于平缓是短期转势的预警信号。
6、KD不适用于发行量太小,交易太小的股票;但对指数以及热门大型股有极高的准确性。
1、D值在70以上时,市场呈现超买现象。D值在30以下时,市场则呈现超卖现象。
2、当随机指数与股价出现背离时,一般为转势的信号。中期或短期的走势有可能已见顶或见底。
3、当K值大于D值,显示目前趋势是向上涨,因此线K向上突破线D时,为买进信号。当D值大于K值,显示趋势是向下跌,因此线K向下跌破线D,为卖出信号。
4、线K与线D的交叉,须在70以上,30以下信号才较为正确。K线与D线在特性上与强弱指标一样,当K值与D值在70以上,已显示超买的现象,30以下出现超卖的现象。KD线不仅能反映市场的超买超卖程度,还能通过交叉突破发出买卖信号。但若这类交叉突破在50左右发生,走势又陷入盘局时,买卖信号可视为无效。
5、当K值和D值上升或下跌的速度减弱,倾斜度趋于平缓是短期转势的预警信号。
6、KD不适用于发行量太小,交易太小的股票;但对指数以及热门大型股有极高的准确性。
[缺点]:
股价短期波动剧烈或者瞬间行情幅度太大时,使用KD值交叉讯号买卖,经常发生买在高点、卖在低点的的窘境。
K值进入超买或超卖区之后,和RSI一样会发生指标徘徊的现象,令股民一时手足无措。
注意!如果波动的幅度够大,买卖之间扣除手续费仍有利润的话,此时将画面转变成五分钟或十五分钟图形,再以KD指标的交叉信号买卖还可以斩获一点利润。
极强或极弱的行情,会造成指标在超买或超卖区内上下徘徊,K值也会发生这种情形,应该参考VR、ROC指标,观察股价是否超出常态分布的范围,一旦确定为极强的走势,则K值的超买超卖的功能将失去作用。
注意!
以D值来代替K值,将可使超买超卖的功能更具效果,一般常态行情,D值大于80时,股价经常向下回跌;D值低于20时,股价容易向上回升。在极端行情中,D值大于90时,股价容易产生瞬间回档;D值低于15时,股价容易产生瞬间反弹。
[诀窍]
(1)K、D值交叉讯号的可靠度如何?要怎样辨认是极端行情还是常态行情?经常困扰着股民,致使这个指标看似有用,实际上又存在着许多无法理清的盲点。此时,你可以试着找两线交叉时所产生的“风洞”。
所谓的风洞就是K、D两线第一次相交时两线所夹成的一个空间,但都是已下跌一段了。[风洞的具体用法]
(2)J值>100时,股价会形成头部。
(3)J值<0时,股价会形成底部。
注意!
J值的讯号不会经常出现,一旦出现,则可信度相当高,很多有心的投机客专门寻找J值的讯号,而且,运用人工智慧选股扫描系统,很轻易的找到最佳买卖点的个股这个讯号可以说是随机指标的精华。
因此,倒过来使用JDK是使用短线指标KDJ的要诀。J值钝化向下发散的一刹那是决定出货日的时机,然而打开5分钟或60分钟KDJ,5分钟K线跌20日均线(系指分时图内)是当日较佳出货点,60分钟K线20日均线一个时段(比如一周内)当然也可以注视5分钟J线,钝化向下发散的瞬间,或60分钟J线钝化向下发散的时点。随机指标KD的标准参数为9,5,3,1;修正参数为27,5,3,1。
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