Showing posts with label Dividend. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Dividend. Show all posts

Thursday, March 20, 2014

Gordon模型的局限和股票估值

绝对价值(内在价值)
以前多数人在寻找股票的绝对价值,什么是公司的内在价值?有一个广泛接受的“红利贴现估值模型”,估值V0=D1贴现+D2贴现+...+(Dn贴现+Pn贴现)。Dn--指第n年的红利;Pn--指第n年卖出股票的价格,假设企业能永续运营,而股票一直不卖,则Pn代表第n年以后的所有红利贴现。所以,如果n足够大,则估值V0=所有预期红利的贴现值。这个公式几乎没有实战的意义,但它对公司内在价值的理解作了一个相当明确并广泛被接受的说明。这个公式是否忽略了资本利得(即留存利润再投资的收益)呢?由于Pn包含了资本利得,故并没有忽略资本利得。

一、Gorden模型
亦称固定增长的红利贴现模型,因Gorden普及了这个模型而被命名。假设持股一年,并假设红利每年以固定的增长率g增长,则公式一可以简化为
  • 公式一:V0=D1/(K-g)
注:V0--现在的估值;D1--注意是一年后的预期红利,而不是本年度已实现的收益;K--“必要收益率”亦称“市场资本化率”:根据风险高低和利率而调整的合理收益率,由于资本预期收益率在均衡时应该等于K,故又可以叫预期收益率。g--红利以固定的增长率g增长。
  
假设公司有更好收益率的投资机会,留存部分收益,而不是全部以红利派发。公式二就转化如下:
  • 公式二:V0=E1*(1-b)/(K-b*ROE)
E1指一年后预期的净收益,ROE是新投资的股权收益率,b是再投资率(即再投资资金占盈利的百分比),则g=再投资收益/账面价值=(再投资收益/整个收益)*(整个收益/账面价值)=b*ROE。如果全部分红,即b=0,则D1=E1,否则D1=E1*(1-b)。
意义:当ROE>K时,b越大,则V0迅速增大,即投资于回报率大于社会预期收益率的项目,会使股价大增;而一个低资产收益率的公司,要扩大投资在原项目,而不是高收益的新项目时,则有弊无利,全部分红更好,如中国铁建。
缺点:公式一、二的前提是公司永续经营,且红利稳定或稳定增长,很难找。

二、估值的底线
  1. 清算价值(本-格林汉姆的方法)
  2. 期次的底线是重置成本,约等于净资产。

   三、MM自由现金流估值
相对价值

目前,证券分析更注重被估值公司的相对价值,即与同行业其它公司或本行业均值的比较。一个重要的概念是:绝大多数情形下估值是不精确的,所谓“黄金有价玉无价”。
  1. 估值模型有很多假设条件,并简化环境。
  2. 估值的不精确并不影响估值的重要性,估值的重要性通过同类股票的比较来得出买卖的决策。
  3. 估值明显受大众心理和经济周期的影响,除非你也象巴菲特一样,持股十年。
  4. 不同类型的公司估值方法并不一样,没有通用的模型,有些股票根本算不到合适的模型,如有发展潜力的、目前尚亏损的网络公司,人们只能用点击率和业务收入的比较来判断公司的优劣。从此角度而言主,你可以有你自己的独创办法。

一、彼得-林奇:市盈率估值模型 
华尔街的实战经验:增长率应大致与市盈率相等。

学院派教科书认为这些经验“可能与红利帖现模型的一些形式是一致的,尽管常有有差异”。由于PE=P0/E1=V0/E1=(1-b)/(k-b*ROE),他们更强调以下结论:1,市盈率是一个很好的预测增长的指标,再投资率越高,增长率就越高,但市盈率并不一定高。当ROE<k时就是这种情形。但ROE>k时,PE会陡然增高。2,公司的风险越高,必要收益率也越高,即或k值越大。因此市盈率越小。当然这是不考虑增长率的变化时。请注意:市盈率是用下一年预期收益计算出来的(这与我们平时的习惯不同)。
我认为这是一个快速评估方法,结果多是上限(也许因为目前处在熊市)。适用于三五年内快速增长且平稳的公司,特别适用于增长加速的公司。

二、基于同类型的公司之间的比较的其它估值模型
  1. 市值/帐面价值比率
  2. 市值/现金流比率
  3. 市值/销售额比率
“银行贷款”模型

Gordon模型假设企业的经营是永续的,实际情况并非如此,估值取决于你对公司的发展能预期多长时间,一年?五年或十年?不同的时间点,估值结果是不同的。如果企业没有特别垄断优势,上市前三年业绩非常好,处于盈市高峰期,在上市时如何评估呢?
受巴菲特“不固定利息的股权债券”思想启发,本人设计了此模型。原理:投资者类似于银行,放贷给公司A元(或估值,公司用股票抵押A元)。通过预测每年的增长率来计算净利润总额B,而B应等于利息总额,通过利息总额贴现贷款额A,即估值。此过程复杂,可通过EXCELL表格来完成。到期收回本息,即A+B。此模型主要针对近期增长很快,但持续时间不长,且增长率变化较大的公司。
例子:海普瑞如果持股2-3年,且净利增长第1到第3年分别为50%,30%,10%,用此模型估值,约121--186元/股,我认为与股价市场表现相当地匹配。
估值是一个范围,而不是一个精确的价位。如果一个人认为某企业明年增长50%,后年增长30%,大后年这个行业不确定非常大,只愿意持股二年;而另一个人虽同意明后年的预期,但他比较肯定,此企业在第三年还能增长15%,他买入股票后准备持股三年,两人的估值是不一样的:后者愿意出更高的价。如果公司符合永续稳定,则估值可用5年期的贴现值替代;如果一个可预期增长期为3年的公司,其估值范围在2-3年贴现值之间;如果一个公司目前非常赚钱,但市场不确定很大,则估值范围在1-2年贴现值之间,巴菲特说“头一年不赚钱没有关系,只要以后每年能够有20%的股东权益报酬率……” 实际上,没有哪个人能预测五年后的事,所以银行的长期贷款最长时间是五年,巴菲特能持股十年,他不仅仅是要五年才重新评估一次,而是年年要跟踪。
意义:
  1. 此模型的结果是比较保守的,A-因为公司除了支付利息,自己还要有利润才行;B-贴现时间越短,估值越保守,因为五年的长期贷款利率目前不及6%,但因复利原因,第二年起就超过了10%。
  2. 模型适应性强,不必是稳定增长的红利,也不必是稳定增长的净利润。
  3. 误差主要来源于对未来数年的增长率的预期的准确性和持股时间。
  4. 找出持续竞争力的公司,预测时间越长,你的发现就可能越大。
  5. 缺陷:原理上不适合短线评估。

戈登股利增长模型(Gordon Dividend Growth Month)

  戈登股利增长模型又称为“股利贴息不变增长模型”、“戈登模型(Gordon Model)”,在大多数理财学和投资学方面的教材中,戈登模型是一个被广泛接受和运用的股票估价模型,该模型通过计算公司预期未来支付给股东的股利现值,来确定股票的内在价值,它相当于未来股利的永续流入。戈登股利增长模型是股息贴现模型的第二种特殊形式,分两种情况:一是不变的增长率;另一个是不变的增长值。
  不变增长模型有三个假定条件:
  1、股息的支付在时间上是永久性的。
  2、股息的增长速度是一个常数。
  3、模型中的贴现率大于股息增长率
  在戈登模型中,需要预测的是下一期股利及其年增长率,而不是预计每一期的股利,以下就是固定股利增长率政策下未来股利的流入量表:

  将所有现金流折现到0点  
  ……,无限项
  应用等比数列的求和公式,上式可以简化为:
  由于这个公式十分简单,因此人们很容易忘记这是一个无限项的运算。
  根据这个模型,公司的股利政策会对股票价值产生影响。这个模型十分有用,原因之一就是它使投资者可以确定一个不受当前股市状况影响的公司的绝对价值或“内在价值”。其次,戈登模型对未来的股利(而不是盈余)进行计量,关注投资者预期可以获得的实际现金流量,有助于不同行业的企业之间进行比较。尽管这个模型的概念十分简单,但是除了一些机构投资者以外,应用范围并不广泛,因为如果缺乏必要的数据和分析工具,它用起来就非常麻烦。
  股利增长模型被麦伦·戈登教授得以推广,因此被称为“戈登模型”,这个模型几乎在每一本投资学教材中都会出现。纽约大学教授Aswath Damodaran在他所著的《投资估价》一书中写道:“从长期来看,用戈登模型低估(高估)的股票胜过(不如)风险调整的市场指数。”尽管任何一种投资模型都不可能永远适用于所有股票,但戈登模型仍被证明是一种可靠的方法,用以选择那些在长期从总体上看走势较好的股票。它应该是投资者用来在其投资组合中选择其中一些股票时运用的有效工具之一。
 戈登股利增长模型的主要内容
  该模型认为,用投资者的必要收益率折现股票的必要现金红利,可以计算出股票理论价格
  戈登模型(Golden Model)揭示了股票价格、预期基期股息、贴现率和股息固定增长率之间的关系,用公式表示为:
  P=D/(i-g)
  其中:P为股票价格;D为预期基期每股股息;i为贴现率;g为股息年增长率。
  由于股票市场的投资风险一般大于货币市场,投资于股票市场的资金势必要求得到一定的风险报酬,使股票市场收益率高于货币市场,形成一种收益与风险相对应的较为稳定的比价结构,所以戈登模型中的贴现率i应包括两部分,其一是货币市场利率r,其二是股票的风险报酬率i′,即i=r+i′,故戈登模型可进一步改写为如下公式:
  P=D/(r+i′-g)
  这一模型说明股票价格P与货币市场利率r成反向关系,r越高,股价P越低,反之亦然,这一关系被现今各国实践所证实。
  戈登股利增长模型的公式详解:
  贴现现金流模型的公式如下:
      V=\frac{D_1}{(1+k)^1}+\frac{D_2}{(1+k)^2}+\frac{D_3}{(1+k)^3}+\cdots+\frac{D_t}{(1+k)^t}  (1)
  式中:
V——股票的内在价值;
Dt——在未来时期以现金形式表示的每股股利
k——在一定风险程度下现金流的合适的贴现率
  如果我们假设股利永远按不变的增长率增长,那么就会建立不变增长模型。T时点的股利为:
  Dt = Dt  1(1 + g)
   = D0(1 + g)t  (2)
  用Dt = D0(1 + g)t置换公式(1)中的分子Dt,得出:
   V=\sum_{t=1}^{\infty}\frac{D_0(1+g)^t}{(1+k)^t}
  =D_0\sum_{t=1}^{\infty}\frac{(1+g)^t}{(1+k)^t}  (3)
  运用数学中无穷级数的性质,如果k>g,可知:
     \sum_{t=1}^{\infty}\frac{(1+g)^t}{(1+k)^t}=\frac{1+g}{k-g}  (4)
  把公式(4)代入公式(3)中,得出不变增长模型的价值公式:
     V=D_0\frac{1+g}{k-g} (5)
  假如去年某公司支付每股股利为1.80元,预计在未来日子里该公司股票的股利按每年5%的速率增长。因此,预期下一年股利等于1.80×(1+0.05)=1.89(元)。假定必要收益率是11%,根据公式(5)可知,该公司的股票等于1.80×(1+0.05)/(0.11-0.05)=1.89/(0.11-0.05)=31.50(元)。而当今每股股票价格是40元,因此股票被高估8.50元,建议当前持有该股票的投资者出售其股票。
  方程(5)可用于解出不变增长证券的内部收益率。首先,用股票的当今价格代替V,其次,用k * 代替k,其结果是:
    P=D_0\frac{1+g}{k^*-g}  (6)
  经过变换,可得:
  
     k^*=\frac{D_0(1+g)}{P}+g
  =\frac{D_1}{P}+g  (7) 
  用上述公式来计算上例公司股票的内部收益率,得出:
  
   k^*=\frac{1.80\times(1+0.05)}{40}+0.05=9.725%
  由于该公司股票的内在收益率小于其必要收益率,显示出该公司股票价格被高估。

不变增长模型与零增长模型的关系
  零增长模型实际上是不变增长模型的一个特例。假定增长率g等于0,股利将永远按固定数量支付,这时,不变增长模型就是零增长模型。
  从这两种模型来看,虽然不变增长的假设比零增长的假设有较小的应用限制,但是在许多情况下仍然被认为是不现实的。由于不变增长模型是多元增长模型的基础,因此这种模型极为重要


Reference : http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_5f5f9a890100d69g.html

Tuesday, October 29, 2013

Fundamental Analysis Concepts & REIT




[Investor Basics] Fundamental Analysis Concepts & REIT

Following two previous posts on Investor Basics – Concepts & Style and Technical Analysis Concepts, this article would look at one of the best yielding groups of stocks in the stock market – REIT, as well as some of the other terms related to Fundamental Analysis Concepts.

Real Estate Investment Trust

Real Estate Investment Trusts (REIT for short) are securities of companies that manage properties in their portfolio and distribute the profits from these properties, revenue from the rents and leases, to their unitholders.

Proper terms for REIT are slightly different from a normal stock counter.
In REIT, a stockholder is known as a unitholder, a share is known as a unit, dividends are called distributions.
As REITs are unique, profits that come from their rents or leases are to be distributed at 90%! Yes, 90% of the profits MUST be distributable. Note that this is only so for REIT!

As REIT gives constant and stable (for most of them anyway) distributions, many passive investors like REIT for their simplicity and consistency. Active Investors like REIT for their stock appreciation during key periods like during distribution periods or when there are announcement on new property acquisitions.

Personal advice for speculators in REIT is to stay away. The reasons being are while REIT many appreciate, the primary idea is to look at the distribution yield. This alone already puts an invisible resistance on the REIT counter. Another reason is that since the REIT distributes most of their profits, their cash flow is limited. So while REIT does appreciate, they will usually do so gradually and slowly, something that short-term traders must take note of.

The primary concept when one wants to own units of REIT (usually for a mid to long term), should be for the constant distribution and the distribution yield. However, there are other important figures to look out for in REITs. These figures while subjective to the eye of the beholder, gives certain insight on things that are not seen by the naked eye.

Distributions

Distributions give a constant stream of money back from your investments. While similar todividends, companies that give dividends usually have no obligation or fixed policy to do so but distributions are necessity for Trust securities.

Distributions of REITs are usually given semi-annually or quarterly. There is a list of REITs and the frequency of their distributions at the end of this article.

Distribution Yield

Distribution yield, similar to dividend yield already covered in my earlier article, is calculated by taking the total annual DPU (distribution per unit) divided by the price of the stock at the point in time the yield is to be calculated, multiply by 100%.

Example: $0.10 (total annual DPU) / $1.30 (price of stock when calculating yield) x 100% = 7.69%

What this means is that, based on the price of $1.30, the REIT returns 7.69% annually.
You can use this figure as a guide if you want to invest into this REIT. Assuming that the current stock price is now at $1.50 instead of $1.30 and assuming that the total annual distribution stays the same at $0.10, the current distribution yield is no longer 7.69% but 6.66%. Its yield has dropped by 1% and the rule of thumb is that the yield will keep dropping as the REIT stock price increases and if its annual DPU stays the same or dips.

Meaningful: Distribution yield will tell you the percentage of returns you can expect annually from the amount you intend to invest or had invested.

Passive investors should use distribution yield to calculate the optimal price they want to invest into an REIT based on the returns they want to see. Annual DPU & distribution yield are always indicated in all REITs' financial year end reports.

Net Asset Value Per Unit (NAVPU) / Net Asset Value Per Share (NAVPS)

Net Asset Value Per Unit (NAVPU) or Net Asset Value Per Share (NAVPS) if referring to a non-REIT stock, is the current value of the security per unit listed in the market. How this is calculated is by taking all of the current assets of the REIT, minus away its liabilities, divided by its units outstanding in the stock market.

To put this in layman’s term, if an REIT has to sell all its properties, cash out on all of its investments and liquidate whatever other assets it has and after paying off all its liabilities, divide the outstanding money to its unitholders, this is the value of each unit. A higher NAVPU tend to usually mean a greater "value" of the REIT.

Meaningful: NAV per unit or share will tell you how much value the unit or stock is worth in the current market.

Passive investors can use NAVPU/NAVPS to determine if a unit/stock counter is overpriced or undervalued. It is indicated on the financial report under “Net Asset Value per Unit”.

Gearing Ratio (Debt-to-Asset Ratio / Debt Ratio)

As all REITs require heavy financing for their acquisitions and operations, the gearing ratio calculated is Debt-to-Asset ratio (or commonly known as Debt ratio), where the total debts is divided by the total assets multiplied by 100%.

All REITs can have a maximum of 60% of gearing only after having their credit rating given by Fitch, Moody’s, or Standard & Poor’s. Otherwise, they can only have a maximum of 35%.

Meaningful: Debt-to-Asset Ratio will tell you how much financial leverage the REIT or company has and is currently using.

Passive investors can use Debt-to-Asset ratio to determine if the company is having too much debts or borrowing heavily (especially if the ratio is greater than 100%). Different industry and sectors have different borrowing range. Use this to compare companies within the same sector to determine which have stronger positive cash flow. Gearing ratios are usually indicated in the presentation slides or press releases.

Refencence Link